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John Milton: Enlightened Servant or Defensive Radical?

David L. Orvis

Throughout his life John Milton struggled with consistently worsening eyesight and, by the winter of 1651, had completely lost all vision in both eyes. Although suffering total blindness is a life-changing experience for any person, it was especially hard for Milton because he relied on his eyes so much, spending the majority of his day reading and researching. When he was not engaged in his studies, he was constantly composing sonnets, pamphlets, and the initial portions of what he hoped would become his great epic. But, before he could finally focus on his epic, Milton was devastated with total blindness. However, he continued to work diligently on his epic and the first edition of Paradise Lost was published in 1667, nearly sixteen years after losing his sight. This leads to an interesting question: How would Paradise Lost be different if Milton retained his sight? In this epic, Milton stresses the importance of seeing the celestial light. In fact, he contends that being able to see the celestial light is far superior to normal human vision. Would Milton have stressed this aspect of faith and spirituality if he had not gone blind? If the answer is no, then why does he use this as his focus? Could Paradise Lost be Milton's defense against his critics, who claim his blindness is a punishment from God? Through analyzing his early poems, prose, and major works, the reader can begin to see why Milton claims superior sight to be one of God's greatest gifts to man.

Before the reader can understand how Milton incorporates his blindness into his writing, it is important to first look at how his contempo raries view his impairment and its causes. It appears those who are closest to Milton believe him in his view that his loss of sight is the result of his faithful service to God. However, many of those who oppose Milton use his sightlessness as an opportunity to destroy his credibility. One group who criticize Milton a great deal are his religious opponents, who "constantly [repeat] the accusation that his blindness [comes] upon him as a just punishment from God."¹ Essentially, these critics argue Milton does not lose his vision while doing God's work, as Milton believes, but rather as a punishment for writing heresy. Milton also has a number of political opponents who use the same logic to disparage him. One opponent, John Garfield, proclaims he is "the blind beetle that durst affront the Royal Eagle . . . I shall leave him under the rod of correction, wherewith God hath evidenced His particular judgment by striking him blind."² Supporters of the monarchy contend God has made Milton blind as punishment for rebelling against the hierarchy and the king. This is an effective argument because people believe the king can speak directly to God and therefore know why He would retaliate by taking Milton's eyesight.

Eventually, these criticisms begin to impact the opinions of Milton's associates. An example of this is Anne Sadier, sister of Cyriak Skinner's mother, who, when asked to read Eikonoclastes, replies, "You should have taken notice to God's judgment upon him, who struck him with blindness, and, as I have heard, he was fain to have the help of Andrew Marvell or else he could not have finished that most accursed libel."³ As critics join the crusade to use Milton's apparent disability against him, more people begin to see his opponents' arguments as valid. One reason for this is that he holds radical religious and political views. It is much easier for people to associate with the more widely accepted Protestant beliefs than Milton's controversial ideas. Additionally, Milton is a single man opposed by a massive group, and people are more likely to conform to a group than a single person. Essentially, it is this growing negative attitude that causes Milton to experience the four major emotional stages connected with his blindness.

The first emotional stage Milton experiences is a combination of shock and depression. There are two major factors that spark these emotions: disbelief and negative criticism. Although he knows his vision is worsening every day, he cannot fathom experiencing complete darkness for the duration of his life. He feels because he can no longer see, he will not be able to finish his great epic and, as a result, cannot serve God. He believes "through his blindness he [is] useless for his life's work."⁴ In addition, Milton is deeply affected by his critics' negative remarks. He knows he will face much criticism for defending Puritanism and opposing the monarchy, but he does not anticipate his blindness being used against him in such a vicious manner. When he realizes his critics are beginning to affect the opinions of some of his associates, Milton can only feel shock and a degree of depression.

Milton expresses these feelings of shock and depression very well in several of his personal sonnets. An excellent example of this is "When I Consider... (1652)," in which he reflects on his life's achievements and how his blindness will affect any future accomplishments. Milton reveals his talent in writing is a blessing, stating, "When I consider how my light is spent."⁵ Milton makes a direct comparison between his writing ability and his "light," claiming it is a gift coming directly from God. Furthermore, he realizes responsibility accompanies this gift, which is to use this light to serve his Creator. However, Milton feels it has been taken away from him, stating, "Talent which is death to hide" is "Lodg'd with me useless."⁶ Milton believes he can no longer serve God because his blindness has cast a shadow over his light; his gift is now useless. As the poem progresses, Milton questions God's justification for robbing him of his talent, writing, "Doth God exact day-labor, light denied."⁷ Milton cannot understand why God would take away a talent he is using to serve Him. Because his Creator does not answer his pleas for an explanation, he becomes confused and depressed. His cherished gift has been taken from him by a God whom he has spent his life serving.

Another sonnet in which Milton expresses emotions of shock and depression is "Methought I saw... (1658)." In this sonnet, he reflects on how his blindness has affected his personal relationships. He begins in a dream-like sequence, stating, "Methought I saw my late espoused Saint / Brought to me like Alcestis from the grave."⁸ He longs to see both his first wife, who is deceased, and his current wife, who is living but whom he cannot physically see. This melancholic tone dominates "Methought I saw..." and shows how depressed Milton has become while living his life in the dark. These feelings become most prominent in the closing lines of the sonnet, where he exclaims, "But O, as to embrace me she inclin'd, / I wak'd, she fled, and day brought back my night."⁹ While many people think of nighttime as their darkness, Milton views it as his light because it is during this time his vision is restored through dreams: this is the only way he can see his loved ones. Every morning when he wakes, he relives the pain of having sight taken from his eyes. This forces Milton to recognize he will only regain his eyesight through death and ascension to Heaven. He writes, "I trust to have / Full sight of her in Heaven without restraint."¹⁰ Through death, Milton's sight will be permanently restored and he will no longer rely on memories and dreams to see his loved ones.

However, Milton learns to live without his eyesight and eventually finds justification for God making him blind. He feels that "far from being a disgrace, his blindness mark[s] him as a creature set apart for God's peculiar uses."¹¹ He believes it is not his talent in writing that is his gift, but rather his writing ability combined with blindness that is the true blessing. By taking his sight from him, God pulls Milton away from the distractions of everyday life and allows him to concentrate on his inner light: the celestial light. Although he can no longer see, Milton does not stop reading or writing for very long. He hires men to read passages from the Hebrew Bible to him in the morning and whenever he needs to do research. When he is ready to write, Milton has an amanuensis copy everything he dictates. As he becomes progressively more comfortable with his blindness, Milton also begins to defend himself against the accusations of his critics.

This desire for Milton to defend himself against his political and religious opponents becomes his second emotional stage in dealing with his blindness. Milton demonstrates this defensive nature very well in "The Second Defense of the People of England (1651)." One example of this is his reference to the hobby of sword fighting, which he practiced in his youth. He claims he became very good at this activity and it helped develop his strength and athletic ability. He expresses the belief that he has "the same courage, the same strength, though not the same eyes."¹² As he begins to embrace his blindness, Milton recognizes that although losing his vision has changed him, it has made him a better person. In addition, it has given him a new motivation to complete his epic. After describing his newly acquired strength, Milton begins to defend himself against critics who label his blindness a punishment. He replies, "Since my enemies boast that this affliction is only a retribution for the transgressions of my pen, I again invoke the Almighty to witness, that I never, at any time, write anything which I did not think agreeable to truth, to justice, and to piety."¹³ This passage shows significant growth in Milton's confidence because he challenges the credibility of the King, who is believed to be in direct contact with God. By using God as his witness, Milton challenges the King's relationship with God. In fact, he may be insinuating that he is closer to God than the king himself. The reader can see Milton's most powerful argument in "The Second Defense of the People of England" when he claims his blindness has made him stronger than the average man:

There is, as the apostle has remarked, a way to strength through weakness. Let me then be the most feeble creature alive, as long as that feebleness serves to invigorate the energies of my rational and immortal spirit; as long as in that obscurity in which I am enveloped, the light of the divine presence more clearly shines, then, in proportion as I am weak, I shall be invincibly strong; and in proportion as I am blind, I shall more clearly see. O! that I may thus be perfected by feebleness, and irradiated by obscurity!¹⁴

One reason for this drastic change in attitude is that after living without vision for an extended period of time, Milton has become comfortable with the darkness. He has had an opportunity to adjust to his new lifestyle and can now consider God's reasons for taking his sight. Another reason for his change in attitude is that although he cannot see or write on his own, many people continue to request his services. Friends and acquaintances insist that he continue writing his tracts. Realizing people are still supporting him, Milton regains the confidence he initially loses with his eyesight and returns to writing his masterpiece.

As his confidence grows Milton completes Paradise Lost (1667), a work for which he feels he has spent his whole life preparing and researching. Throughout this epic the reader can see Milton's third emotional stage, which Majorie Hope Nicolson calls the "true warfaring Christian."¹⁵ At this point in Milton's life, he has regained enough confidence to move past merely defending his blindness and begin using it to his benefit. In fact, from this new attitude stems the belief that he is justified in writing about the fall of man. As these feelings further develop, Milton finds it appropriate to include himself as the speaker of Paradise Lost, finding in his blindness "a new and more potent symbol of poetic inspiration."¹⁶ The completion of his great epic is no longer a desire for Milton, but rather a necessity. He must reveal the circumstances surrounding the fall of Adam and Eve so man can learn from this event and construct a better sense of his place in God's world.

Milton's "warfaring Christian" attitude serves as the dominant voice of Paradise Lost. One example of this is the prologue of Book III, commonly referred to as the "Prologue of Light," in which Milton makes a specific reference to his blindness, explaining images "Revisit't not these eyes, that roll in vain / To find thy piercing ray, and find no dawn."¹⁷ Milton does not mention his blindness to gain sympathy from the reader, but rather as a way to include himself in the metaphor he creates between God and light. Furthermore, he includes himself to reestablish it is his light creating Paradise Lost. As the prologue continues, Milton compares himself to great blind writers of the past, writing,

Nightly I visit: nor sometimes forget
Those other two equall'd with them in renown,
Blind Thamyris and blind Maeonides,
And Tiresias and Phineus Prophets old.¹⁸

Milton makes reference to these particular figures for a reason. For example, the reference to Thamyrus alludes to Homer's "On Music," in which Thamyris is commissioned by Plutarch to write a poem about the war between the Titans and the gods.¹⁹ One reason Milton references this character is because like Thamyris, he is also writing about an important war: the war in Heaven. In addition, Thamyris also wrote his great work while blind. Essentially, Milton is informing the reader that Paradise Lost will be as magnificent and revered as Thamyris's work. He also believes Paradise Lost is the Christian parallel to Thamyris's pagan war. As he concludes the "Prologue of Light," he tells the reader why he is justified in writing about God and the fall of man, explaining,

So much the rather thou celestial light
Shine inward, and the mind through all her powers
Irradiate, there plant eyes, all mist from thence
Purge and disperse, that I may see and tell
Of things invisible to mortal sight.²⁰

Milton believes that although he cannot see the sun's visible light as most other people, he can see a celestial light, which most people cannot see. Milton feels this is the superior light and uses Paradise Lost as a way to describe this light to those who are unable to see it. Additionally, it is important to note Milton's invocation moves from pagan to Christian, which is his way of showing the reader everything he writes in this epic is not simply what he thinks, but rather inspiration from the light he has been given.

However, the "Prologue of Light" is not the only place in Paradise Lost where Milton displays his "warfaring Chrisitian" attitude. He makes another strong reference to celestial light in the prologue of Book VII, explaining he receives his inspiration from the muse "While thou / Visit'st my slumbers Nightly."²¹ Milton reminds the reader he receives his inspiration at night while he dreams, which is a metaphor he first uses in his sonnets. The use of this metaphor shows how he has created strength out of what he once saw as a weakness. However, in Paradise Lost he sees this inspiration as superior to others' because it comes from an internal, spiritual light. This attitude continues in the prologue of Book IX, where Milton makes another comparison of blindness to night, stating,

If answerable style I can obtain
Of my celestial Patroness, who deigns
Her nightly visitation unimplor'd
And dictates to me slumb'ring.²²

Milton feels it is essential to reiterate this comparison before he describes the fall of Adam and Eve, the central focus of Paradise Lost. He reminds the reader this account does not come from the imagination of a fallen man, but rather it is inspiration he receives from God through the gift of his blindness. In Book XII, Milton makes another important correlation between celestial light and his eyesight, writing, "I find / Mine eyes true op'ning, and my heart much eas'd." ²³ Milton has spent thousands of lines interpolating his blindness with an internal light, yet in this passage his eyes appear to have been opened. However, Milton has acquired superior, more powerful vision with which he can see light many people are unable to see: the light of God.

After Milton finishes his great epic his attitude toward his blindness changes. He becomes less concerned with explaining the fall of man and justifying his superior vision because people can read about these revelations in Paradise Lost. This marks his fourth and final stage in dealing with his blindness: satisfaction and accomplishment. Although for a period of time he felt he would never finish it, Milton believes he has served his Creator well in completing Paradise Lost. William Riley Parker comments on this attitude, stating, "Milton may well have thought his poetic 'light' was 'spent.'"²⁴ Milton makes a clear distinction between his gift being "spent" as opposed to being "distinguished." He believes it has not been lost through punishment or misuse, but spent through many years of research, contemplation, and reflection. Furthermore, he has used it to serve God and better humanity.

Milton expresses this satisfaction in Samson Agonistes (1671). In the opening passage of this play, Milton uses the central character, Samson, to be his voice in expressing how he initially felt about his blindness, stating, "A little onward lend thy guiding hand / To these dark steps, a little further on; / For yonder bank hath choice of sun or shade."²⁵ In this scene, Samson is led through a prison in Gaza, which is symbolic of the imprisonment of his blindness. Milton also felt this way when he started to deal with his own blindness. At first, he felt he could not serve God or live a full life without his sight.However, unlike Samson, Milton was able to see his blindness as a gift and use it to complete his epic. Here Milton is emphasizing his satisfaction by showing how other people either misuse or completely ignore their talents. As Samson Agonistes progresses, Milton includes contemplations and reflections about his life's accomplishments, writing,

How many evils have enclos'd me round;
Yet that which was the worst now least afflicts me,
Blindness, for had I sight, confus'd with shame,
How could I once look up, or heave the head,
Who like a foolish Pilot have shipwreck't
My vessel trusted to me from above.²⁶

After contemplating the effect of blindness on his life's work, Milton ultimately feels losing his sight has given him strength he may not have had with sight. In addition, he is satisfied with how he used that blindness to better man as best he could. Although his light may have been "spent," he feels it has not gone to waste. Milton also uses Samson Agonistes to make an interesting comparison between death and satisfaction, stating, "With peace and consolation hath dismissed, / And calm of mind, all passion spent."²⁷ Milton expresses a calmness he feels as a result of spending the majority of his time and energy writing Paradise Lost. He correlates this to death because he feels he has fulfilled his obligations on Earth and is now ready to join God and his loved ones in Heaven. He has succeeded in his attempt to "justify the ways of God to man."²⁸

Milton's blindness has affected his writing a great deal, which the reader can see through his constant use of references to light and dark, day and night, and life and death. However, there is another way to view Milton's sightlessness. Because his work is so influenced by his blindness, it may be possible that his great epic could not have been written as well if he did not lose his vision. In fact, he may not have been able to write it at all. Could Milton have written about the celestial light if he had not gone blind? Would he have even recognized a celestial light if he had not gone blind? In essence, the central question regarding Milton's blindness is: Does Milton's blindness prepare him to accept inspiration from God, or does it create inspiration from God? If the reader chooses to accept the former, then Milton has succeeded in what he has hoped to accomplish on Earth. By accepting the gift of blindness and, in turn, a higher form of sight, Milton has completed his great epic and has served God. However, if the reader chooses to accept the latter, then Milton's reasons for writing his early poems, prose, and major works may be somewhat unclear. Although the central purpose of these works would remain the same, the symbols Milton uses may have additional, underlying motives. For example, Milton often claims he has superior eyesight through blindness, and, in turn, he is able to see an internal light because the inferior light of the sun does not distract him. However, is Milton saying that if he had not lost his sight, he would not have been as able to receive inspiration from God? This is possible; however, it appears Milton is making a more general conclusion about the nature of his blindness. Through writing his early poems, prose, and major works, Milton is showing that man needs to focus on his weaknesses and see how these weaknesses can better him as a person, both physically and spiritually. By incorporating blindness in many of his works, he is showing the reader how he has utilized his own weakness to better humanity. The readers must now look within themselves to find their greatest weaknesses and transform them into their most powerful gifts.

End Notes

William Riley Parker, Milton: A Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), 711.
A. N. Wilson, The Life of John Milton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), 216.
Parker, 964.
E. M. W. Tillyard, Milton (New York: Collier Books, 1966), 331.
John Milton, "When I Consider...," in Complete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Hughes (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1957).
Ibid., 3-4.
Ibid., 7.
John Milton, "Methought I Saw...," in Complete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Hughes (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1957), 1-2.
Ibid., 13-14.
Ibid., 7-8.
James Holly Hanford and James G. Taaffe, A Milton Handbook (New York: Meredith Corporation, 1970), 91.
John Milton, "The Second Defense of the English People," in Com- plete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Hughes (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1957), 824.
Ibid., 825.
Tillyard, 170.
Majorie Hope Nicolson, A Reader's Guide to John Milton (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1998), 155.
Parker, 800.
John Milton, Paradise Lost, in Complete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Hughes (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1957), III.23-24.
Ibid., III.32-36.
Merritt Hughes, Complete Poems and Major Prose (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1957), 258.
Milton, Paradise Lost, III.51-55.
Ibid., VII.28-29.
Ibid., IX.20-23.
Ibid., XII.273-274.
Parker, 1043.
John Milton, Samson Agonistes, in Complete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Hughes (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1957), 1-3.
Ibid., 194-199.
Ibid., 1757-1758.
Milton, Paradise Lost, I.26.

Works Cited

Hanford, James Holly and James G. Taaffe. A Milton Handbook. New York: Meredith Corporation, 1970.

Hughes, Merritt Y. John Milton: Complete Poems and Major Prose. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1957.

Nicolson, Majorie Hope. A Reader's Guide to John Milton. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1998.

Parker, William Riley. Milton: A Biography. II Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968.

Tillyard, E. M. W. Milton. New York: Collier Books, 1966.

Wilson, A. N. The Life of John Milton. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.